Состояние здоровья в Европе и России: общественный контекст и социальные неравенства
Выражение признательности
Исследование выполнено при поддержке РГНФгрант № 14-03-00697
Для цитирования
Русинова Н. Л., Сафонов В. В. Состояние здоровья в Европе и России: общественный контекст и социальные неравенства // Социологический журнал. 2014. Том 20. № 4. С. С. 19-43. DOI: https://doi.org/10.19181/socjour.2014.20.4.235
Аннотация
Статья посвящена различиям здоровья людей в странах Европы и выраженности в них социальных неравенств в данной сфере. Анализ данных Европейского социального исследования 2008 года (репрезентативные выборки населения 28 стран) и статистики Мирового банка и ВОЗ, проведенный с применением методов двухуровневого логистического моделирования, показывает, что в посткоммунистических странах здоровье населения, как правило, существенно хуже, чем в других частях континента. Причина этого — относительно невысокий уровень развития (экономики, социального государства, эффективности государственного управления) многих из этих стран, а также ослабление в них социальной интеграции. Показано также, что здоровье в Европе структурировано по демографическим и социальным признакам, и отчетливость такого структурирования зависит от макроконтекста — уровня развития страны. С его повышением социальные неравенства в здоровье начинают сглаживаться.
Ключевые слова:
здоровье в странах Европы, социетальные факторы, социальные неравенства в здоровье, влияние общественного контекста, Европейское социальное исследование 2008, двухуровневое логистическое моделирование
Литература
Bambra C. The worlds of welfare: Illusory and gender blind? // Social Policy and Society. 2004. Vol. 3. Issue 3. P. 201–212.
Bambra C. Health status and the worlds of welfare // Social Policy and So-ciety. 2006. Vol. 5. Issue 1. P. 53–62.
Bambra C., Pope D., Stanistreet D., Swami V., Stirbu I., Kunst A., and Scott-Samuel A. Gender and health inequalities in welfare state regimes: A cross-national study of twelve European countries // Tackling Health Inequalities in Europe: An Integrated Approach. EUROTHINE (Final Report). Rotterdam: Erasmus MC, 2007. Chapter 13. P. 230–246.
Beckfield J., and Krieger N. Epi + demos + cracy: Linking political systems and priorities to the magnitude of health inequities — evidence, gaps, and a research agenda // Epidemiologic Reviews. 2009. Vol. 31. Issue 1. P. 152–177.
Berkman L.F., and Glass T. Social integration, social networks, social support, and health // Social epidemiology / Ed. by Berkman, and I. Kawachi. Cambridge: Oxford University Press, 2000. P. 137–173.
Besley T., and Masayuki K. M. Health and democracy // The American Eco-nomic Review. 2006. Vol. 96. No. 2. P. 313–318.
Bloom D.E., Canning D. The health and wealth of nations // Science. 2000. Vol. 287. Issue 5456. P. 1207–1209.
Bobak M., Murphy M., Rose R., and Marmot M. Societal characteristics and health in the former communist countries of Central and Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union: A multilevel analysis // Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 2007. Vol. 61. No. 11. P. 990–996.
Carlson E.D., Chamberlain R.M. Social capital, health, and health dispari-ties // Journal of Nursing Scholarship. 2003. Vol. 35. Issue 4. P. 325–331.
Castilla E.J. Organizing health care — a comparative analysis of national institutions and inequality over time // International sociology. 2004. Vol. 19. No. 4. P. 403–435.
Cavelaars A.E.J.M., Kunst A.E., Geurts J.J.M., Crialesi R., Grötvedt L., et al. Differences in self-reported morbidity by educational level: A comparison of 11 Western European countries // Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 1998. Vol. 52. No. 4. P. 219–227.
Chung H., Muntaner C. Welfare state matters: A typological multilevel analysis of wealthy countries // Health Policy. 2007. Vol. 80. Issue 2. P. 328–339.
Cockerham W.C. The social determinants of the decline of life expectancy in Russia and Eastern Europe: A lifestyle explanation // Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 1997. Vol. 38. No. 2. P. 117–130.
Cockerham W.C., Snead M.C., Dewaal D.F. Health lifestyles in Russia and the Socialist Heritage // Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 2002. Vol. 43. No. 1. P. 42–55.
Cohen S. Social relationships and health // American Psychologist. 2004. Vol. 59. Issue 8. P. 676–684.
Dahl E., Fritzell J., Lahelma E., Martikainen P., Kunst A., and Mackenbach J.P. Welfare state regimes and health inequalities // Social Inequalities in Health: New Evidence and Policy Implications / Ed. by J. Siegrist and M. Marmot. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. P. 193–222.
Dahl E., van der Wel K.A. Educational inequalities in health in European welfare states: A social expenditure approach // Social Science and Medicine. 2013. Vol. 81. Issue 1. P. 60–69.
Durkheim E.E. Suicide: A study in sociology / Ed. by J.A. Spaulding, G. Simpson. New York: Free Press, 1997. — 405 p.
Eikemo T.A., Bambra C., Joyce K., and Dahl E. Welfare state regimes and income-related health inequalities: A comparison of 23 European countries // European Journal of Public Health. 2008. Vol. 18. Issue 6. P. 593–599.
Eikemo T.A., Bambra C., Judge K., Ringdal K. Welfare state regimes and differences in self-perceived health in Europe: A multilevel analysis // Social Science and Medicine. 2008. Vol. 66. Issue 11. P. 2281–2295.
Eikemo T.A., Huisman M., Bambra C., and Kunst A.E. Health inequalities according to educational level in different welfare regimes: A comparison of 23 European countries // Sociology of Health and Illness. 2008. Vol. 30. Issue 4. P. 565–582.
Eikemo T.A., Kunst A.E., Judge K., and Mackenbach J.P. Class-related health inequalities are not larger in the East: A comparison of four European regions using the new European socioeconomic classification // Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 2008. Vol. 62. No. 12. P. 1072–1078.
Espelt A., Borrell C., Rodríguez-Sanz M., Muntaner C., Pasarín M.I., et al. Inequalities in health by social class dimensions in European countries of different political traditions // International Journal of Epidemiology. 2008. Vol. 37. Issue 5. P. 1095–1105.
European health for all database (HFA-DB). World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe [online]. Date of access 15.03.2014. URL:
European Social Survey Round 4 Data. Data file edition 4.1. Norwegian Social Science Data Services, Norway — Data Archive and distributor of ESS data. [online]. Date of access 15.03.2014. URL:
Franco A., Alvarez-Dardet C., Ruiz M.T. Effect of democracy on health: ecological study // British Medical Journal. 2004. Vol. 329. Issue 7480. P. 1421–1423.
Islam M.K., Merlo J., Kawachi I., Lindström M., and Gerdtham U.-G. Social capital and health: Does egalitarianism matter? A literature review // Interna-tional Journal for Equity in Health. 2006. Vol. 5. No. 3. P. 3–28.
Kawachi I., Kennedy B.P., and Glass R. Social capital and self-rated health: A contextual analysis // American Journal of Public Health. 1999. Vol. 89. Issue 8. P. 1187–1193.
Kawachi I., Kennedy B.P., and Wilkinson R.G. Crime: Social organization and relative deprivation // Social Science & Medicine. 1999. Vol. 48. Issue 6. P. 719–731.
Knesebeck von dem O., Verde P.E., Dragano N. Education and health in 22 European countries // Social Science and Medicine. 2006. Vol. 63. Issue 5. P. 1344–1351.
Korpi W. Faces of inequality: Gender, class, and patterns of inequality in different types of welfare states // Social Politics. 2000. Vol. 7. Issue 2. P. 127–191.
Kunst A.E., Bos V., Lahelma E., Bartley M., Lissau I., et al. Trends in socioeconomic inequalities in self-assessed health in 10 European countries // International Journal of Epidemiology. 2005. Vol. 34. Issue 2. P. 295–305.
Lake D.A., Baum M.A. The invisible hand of democracy: Political control and the provision of public services // Comparative Political Studies. 2001. Vol. 34. No. 6. P. 587–621.
Lundberg O., Yngwe M.A., Stjarne M.K., Elstad J.I., Ferrarini T., Kangas O., Norstrom T., Palme J., Fritzell J. The role of welfare state principles and generosity in social policy programmes for public health: an international comparative study // The Lancet. 2008. Vol. 372 (9650). P. 1633–1640.
Macinko J., and Starfield B. The utility of social capital in research on health determinants // Milbank Quarterly. 2001. Vol. 79. No. 3. P. 387–427.
Mackenbach J.P. The persistence of health inequalities in modern welfare states: The explanation of a paradox // Social Science and Medicine. 2012. Vol. 75. Issue 4. P. 761–769.
Mackenbach J.P., Stirbu I.M., Roskam A.-J.R., Schaap M.M., Menvielle G., et al. Socioeconomic inequalities in health in 22 European countries // New England Journal of Medicine. 2008. Vol. 358. Issue 23. P. 2468–2481.
Marmot M. Social determinants of health inequalities // The Lancet. 2005. Vol. 365 (9464). P. 1099–1104.
Muntaner C., Borrell C., Kunst A., Chung H., Benach J., and Ibrahim S. So-cial class inequalities in health: Does welfare state regime matter? // Staying Alive: Critical Perspectives on Health, Illness, and Health Care / Ed. by D. Raphael, T. Bryant, and M.H. Rioux. Toronto: Canadian Scholars Press, 2006. P. 139–158.
Muntaner C., Borrell C., Ng E., Chung H., Espelt A., Rodriguez-Sanz M., Benach J., and O’Campo P. Politics, welfare regimes, and population health: Controversies and evidence // Sociology of Health and Illness. 2011. Vol. 33. Issue 6. P. 946–964.
Navarro V., Borrell C., Benach J., Muntaner C., Quiroga A., et al. The im-portance of the political and the social in explaining mortality differentials among the countries of the OECD, 1950–1998 // International Journal of Health Services. 2003. Vol. 33. Issue 3. P. 419–494.
Navarro V., and Shi L. The political context of social inequalities and health // International Journal of Health Services. 2001. Vol. 31. No. 1. P. 1–21.
Olsen K.M., Dahl S.-A. Health differences between European countries // Social Science & Medicine. 2007. Vol. 64. Issue 8. P. 1665–1678.
Ploubidis G.B., Dale C., Grundy E. Later life health in Europe: How important are country level influences? // European Journal of Ageing. 2012. Vol. 9. Issue 1. P. 5–13.
Preston S.H. The changing relation between mortality and level of economic development // Population Studies. 1975. Vol. 29. Issue 2. P. 231–248.
Raudenbush S.W., and Bryk A.S. Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2002. — 512 p.
Sainsbury D. Gendering welfare states. London: SAGE, 1994. — 243 p.
Sampson R.J., Raudenbush S.W., Earls F. Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy // Science. 1997. Vol. 277. Issue 5328. P. 918–924.
Schutte S., Chastang J.-F., Parent-Thirion A., Vermeylen G., Niedhammer I. Social differences in self-reported health among men and women in 31 countries in Europe // Scandinavian Journal of Public Health. 2013. Vol. 41 (1). P. 51–57.
Smith K.P., and Christakis N.A. Social networks and health // Annual Review of Sociology. 2008. Vol. 34. P. 405–429.
Social capital debate // International Journal of Epidemiology. 2004. Vol. 33. Issue 4. P. 650–709.
Social capital and health / Ed. by I. Kawachi, S.V. Subramanian, and D. Kim. New York: Springer Publishing Company, 2008. —292 p.
Subramanian S.V., Belli P., and Kawachi I. The macroeconomic determinants of health // Annual Review of Public Health. 2002. Vol. 23. P. 287–302.
Subramanian S.V., Kim D.J., and Kawachi I. Social trust and self-rated health in US communities: A multilevel analysis // Journal of Urban Health. 2002. Vol. 79 (Supplement 1). P. S21–S34.
Szaflarski M., and Ritchey P.N. Individual and areal socioeconomics factors in health: Comparing the United States and Poland // International Review of Modern Sociology. 2005. Vol. 31. No. 1. P. 33–55.
Szreter S., and Woolcock M. Health by association? Social capital, social theory and the political economy of public health // International Journal of Epidemiology. 2004. Vol. 33. No. 4. P. 650–667.
Tackling health inequalities in Europe: An integrated approach. EUROTHINE Final Report. Rotterdam: Erasmus MC, 2007. — 634 p.
United Nations statistical division (UNSTAT). Demographic yearbook 2008. Divorces and crude divorce rates [online]. Date of access 15.03.2014. URL:
Walberg P., McKee M., Shkolnikov V., Chenet L., Leon D.A. Economic change, crime, and mortality crisis in Russia: Regional analysis // British Medical Journal. 1998. Vol. 317. No. 7154. P. 312–318.
Wilkinson R.G. Health, hierarchy, and social anxiety // Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1999. Vol. 896. P. 48–63.
Wilkinson R.G., Pickett K. The spirit level: Why more equal societies almost always do better. London: Allen Lane, 2009.
World Bank. GNI per capita, PPP (current international $) [online]. Date of access 15.03.2014. URL:.
World Bank. Intentional homicides (per 100,000 people) [online]. Date of access 15.03.2014. URL:.
World Bank. Worldwide Governance Indicators (WGI) [online]. Date of access 15.03.2014. Control of Corruption. URL:
World health organization (2011). World Health Statistics 2011. Geneva: WHO Press, 2011. — 170 p.
World health organization (2012). World Health Statistics 2012. Geneva: WHO Press, 2012. — 175 p.
Bambra C. Health status and the worlds of welfare // Social Policy and So-ciety. 2006. Vol. 5. Issue 1. P. 53–62.
Bambra C., Pope D., Stanistreet D., Swami V., Stirbu I., Kunst A., and Scott-Samuel A. Gender and health inequalities in welfare state regimes: A cross-national study of twelve European countries // Tackling Health Inequalities in Europe: An Integrated Approach. EUROTHINE (Final Report). Rotterdam: Erasmus MC, 2007. Chapter 13. P. 230–246.
Beckfield J., and Krieger N. Epi + demos + cracy: Linking political systems and priorities to the magnitude of health inequities — evidence, gaps, and a research agenda // Epidemiologic Reviews. 2009. Vol. 31. Issue 1. P. 152–177.
Berkman L.F., and Glass T. Social integration, social networks, social support, and health // Social epidemiology / Ed. by Berkman, and I. Kawachi. Cambridge: Oxford University Press, 2000. P. 137–173.
Besley T., and Masayuki K. M. Health and democracy // The American Eco-nomic Review. 2006. Vol. 96. No. 2. P. 313–318.
Bloom D.E., Canning D. The health and wealth of nations // Science. 2000. Vol. 287. Issue 5456. P. 1207–1209.
Bobak M., Murphy M., Rose R., and Marmot M. Societal characteristics and health in the former communist countries of Central and Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union: A multilevel analysis // Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 2007. Vol. 61. No. 11. P. 990–996.
Carlson E.D., Chamberlain R.M. Social capital, health, and health dispari-ties // Journal of Nursing Scholarship. 2003. Vol. 35. Issue 4. P. 325–331.
Castilla E.J. Organizing health care — a comparative analysis of national institutions and inequality over time // International sociology. 2004. Vol. 19. No. 4. P. 403–435.
Cavelaars A.E.J.M., Kunst A.E., Geurts J.J.M., Crialesi R., Grötvedt L., et al. Differences in self-reported morbidity by educational level: A comparison of 11 Western European countries // Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 1998. Vol. 52. No. 4. P. 219–227.
Chung H., Muntaner C. Welfare state matters: A typological multilevel analysis of wealthy countries // Health Policy. 2007. Vol. 80. Issue 2. P. 328–339.
Cockerham W.C. The social determinants of the decline of life expectancy in Russia and Eastern Europe: A lifestyle explanation // Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 1997. Vol. 38. No. 2. P. 117–130.
Cockerham W.C., Snead M.C., Dewaal D.F. Health lifestyles in Russia and the Socialist Heritage // Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 2002. Vol. 43. No. 1. P. 42–55.
Cohen S. Social relationships and health // American Psychologist. 2004. Vol. 59. Issue 8. P. 676–684.
Dahl E., Fritzell J., Lahelma E., Martikainen P., Kunst A., and Mackenbach J.P. Welfare state regimes and health inequalities // Social Inequalities in Health: New Evidence and Policy Implications / Ed. by J. Siegrist and M. Marmot. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. P. 193–222.
Dahl E., van der Wel K.A. Educational inequalities in health in European welfare states: A social expenditure approach // Social Science and Medicine. 2013. Vol. 81. Issue 1. P. 60–69.
Durkheim E.E. Suicide: A study in sociology / Ed. by J.A. Spaulding, G. Simpson. New York: Free Press, 1997. — 405 p.
Eikemo T.A., Bambra C., Joyce K., and Dahl E. Welfare state regimes and income-related health inequalities: A comparison of 23 European countries // European Journal of Public Health. 2008. Vol. 18. Issue 6. P. 593–599.
Eikemo T.A., Bambra C., Judge K., Ringdal K. Welfare state regimes and differences in self-perceived health in Europe: A multilevel analysis // Social Science and Medicine. 2008. Vol. 66. Issue 11. P. 2281–2295.
Eikemo T.A., Huisman M., Bambra C., and Kunst A.E. Health inequalities according to educational level in different welfare regimes: A comparison of 23 European countries // Sociology of Health and Illness. 2008. Vol. 30. Issue 4. P. 565–582.
Eikemo T.A., Kunst A.E., Judge K., and Mackenbach J.P. Class-related health inequalities are not larger in the East: A comparison of four European regions using the new European socioeconomic classification // Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 2008. Vol. 62. No. 12. P. 1072–1078.
Espelt A., Borrell C., Rodríguez-Sanz M., Muntaner C., Pasarín M.I., et al. Inequalities in health by social class dimensions in European countries of different political traditions // International Journal of Epidemiology. 2008. Vol. 37. Issue 5. P. 1095–1105.
European health for all database (HFA-DB). World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe [online]. Date of access 15.03.2014. URL:
European Social Survey Round 4 Data. Data file edition 4.1. Norwegian Social Science Data Services, Norway — Data Archive and distributor of ESS data. [online]. Date of access 15.03.2014. URL:
Franco A., Alvarez-Dardet C., Ruiz M.T. Effect of democracy on health: ecological study // British Medical Journal. 2004. Vol. 329. Issue 7480. P. 1421–1423.
Islam M.K., Merlo J., Kawachi I., Lindström M., and Gerdtham U.-G. Social capital and health: Does egalitarianism matter? A literature review // Interna-tional Journal for Equity in Health. 2006. Vol. 5. No. 3. P. 3–28.
Kawachi I., Kennedy B.P., and Glass R. Social capital and self-rated health: A contextual analysis // American Journal of Public Health. 1999. Vol. 89. Issue 8. P. 1187–1193.
Kawachi I., Kennedy B.P., and Wilkinson R.G. Crime: Social organization and relative deprivation // Social Science & Medicine. 1999. Vol. 48. Issue 6. P. 719–731.
Knesebeck von dem O., Verde P.E., Dragano N. Education and health in 22 European countries // Social Science and Medicine. 2006. Vol. 63. Issue 5. P. 1344–1351.
Korpi W. Faces of inequality: Gender, class, and patterns of inequality in different types of welfare states // Social Politics. 2000. Vol. 7. Issue 2. P. 127–191.
Kunst A.E., Bos V., Lahelma E., Bartley M., Lissau I., et al. Trends in socioeconomic inequalities in self-assessed health in 10 European countries // International Journal of Epidemiology. 2005. Vol. 34. Issue 2. P. 295–305.
Lake D.A., Baum M.A. The invisible hand of democracy: Political control and the provision of public services // Comparative Political Studies. 2001. Vol. 34. No. 6. P. 587–621.
Lundberg O., Yngwe M.A., Stjarne M.K., Elstad J.I., Ferrarini T., Kangas O., Norstrom T., Palme J., Fritzell J. The role of welfare state principles and generosity in social policy programmes for public health: an international comparative study // The Lancet. 2008. Vol. 372 (9650). P. 1633–1640.
Macinko J., and Starfield B. The utility of social capital in research on health determinants // Milbank Quarterly. 2001. Vol. 79. No. 3. P. 387–427.
Mackenbach J.P. The persistence of health inequalities in modern welfare states: The explanation of a paradox // Social Science and Medicine. 2012. Vol. 75. Issue 4. P. 761–769.
Mackenbach J.P., Stirbu I.M., Roskam A.-J.R., Schaap M.M., Menvielle G., et al. Socioeconomic inequalities in health in 22 European countries // New England Journal of Medicine. 2008. Vol. 358. Issue 23. P. 2468–2481.
Marmot M. Social determinants of health inequalities // The Lancet. 2005. Vol. 365 (9464). P. 1099–1104.
Muntaner C., Borrell C., Kunst A., Chung H., Benach J., and Ibrahim S. So-cial class inequalities in health: Does welfare state regime matter? // Staying Alive: Critical Perspectives on Health, Illness, and Health Care / Ed. by D. Raphael, T. Bryant, and M.H. Rioux. Toronto: Canadian Scholars Press, 2006. P. 139–158.
Muntaner C., Borrell C., Ng E., Chung H., Espelt A., Rodriguez-Sanz M., Benach J., and O’Campo P. Politics, welfare regimes, and population health: Controversies and evidence // Sociology of Health and Illness. 2011. Vol. 33. Issue 6. P. 946–964.
Navarro V., Borrell C., Benach J., Muntaner C., Quiroga A., et al. The im-portance of the political and the social in explaining mortality differentials among the countries of the OECD, 1950–1998 // International Journal of Health Services. 2003. Vol. 33. Issue 3. P. 419–494.
Navarro V., and Shi L. The political context of social inequalities and health // International Journal of Health Services. 2001. Vol. 31. No. 1. P. 1–21.
Olsen K.M., Dahl S.-A. Health differences between European countries // Social Science & Medicine. 2007. Vol. 64. Issue 8. P. 1665–1678.
Ploubidis G.B., Dale C., Grundy E. Later life health in Europe: How important are country level influences? // European Journal of Ageing. 2012. Vol. 9. Issue 1. P. 5–13.
Preston S.H. The changing relation between mortality and level of economic development // Population Studies. 1975. Vol. 29. Issue 2. P. 231–248.
Raudenbush S.W., and Bryk A.S. Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2002. — 512 p.
Sainsbury D. Gendering welfare states. London: SAGE, 1994. — 243 p.
Sampson R.J., Raudenbush S.W., Earls F. Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy // Science. 1997. Vol. 277. Issue 5328. P. 918–924.
Schutte S., Chastang J.-F., Parent-Thirion A., Vermeylen G., Niedhammer I. Social differences in self-reported health among men and women in 31 countries in Europe // Scandinavian Journal of Public Health. 2013. Vol. 41 (1). P. 51–57.
Smith K.P., and Christakis N.A. Social networks and health // Annual Review of Sociology. 2008. Vol. 34. P. 405–429.
Social capital debate // International Journal of Epidemiology. 2004. Vol. 33. Issue 4. P. 650–709.
Social capital and health / Ed. by I. Kawachi, S.V. Subramanian, and D. Kim. New York: Springer Publishing Company, 2008. —292 p.
Subramanian S.V., Belli P., and Kawachi I. The macroeconomic determinants of health // Annual Review of Public Health. 2002. Vol. 23. P. 287–302.
Subramanian S.V., Kim D.J., and Kawachi I. Social trust and self-rated health in US communities: A multilevel analysis // Journal of Urban Health. 2002. Vol. 79 (Supplement 1). P. S21–S34.
Szaflarski M., and Ritchey P.N. Individual and areal socioeconomics factors in health: Comparing the United States and Poland // International Review of Modern Sociology. 2005. Vol. 31. No. 1. P. 33–55.
Szreter S., and Woolcock M. Health by association? Social capital, social theory and the political economy of public health // International Journal of Epidemiology. 2004. Vol. 33. No. 4. P. 650–667.
Tackling health inequalities in Europe: An integrated approach. EUROTHINE Final Report. Rotterdam: Erasmus MC, 2007. — 634 p.
United Nations statistical division (UNSTAT). Demographic yearbook 2008. Divorces and crude divorce rates [online]. Date of access 15.03.2014. URL:
Walberg P., McKee M., Shkolnikov V., Chenet L., Leon D.A. Economic change, crime, and mortality crisis in Russia: Regional analysis // British Medical Journal. 1998. Vol. 317. No. 7154. P. 312–318.
Wilkinson R.G. Health, hierarchy, and social anxiety // Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1999. Vol. 896. P. 48–63.
Wilkinson R.G., Pickett K. The spirit level: Why more equal societies almost always do better. London: Allen Lane, 2009.
World Bank. GNI per capita, PPP (current international $) [online]. Date of access 15.03.2014. URL:
World Bank. Intentional homicides (per 100,000 people) [online]. Date of access 15.03.2014. URL:
World Bank. Worldwide Governance Indicators (WGI) [online]. Date of access 15.03.2014. Control of Corruption. URL:
World health organization (2011). World Health Statistics 2011. Geneva: WHO Press, 2011. — 170 p.
World health organization (2012). World Health Statistics 2012. Geneva: WHO Press, 2012. — 175 p.
Форматы цитирования
Другие форматы цитирования:
ACM
[1]
Русинова, Н.Л. и Сафонов, В.В. 2014. Состояние здоровья в Европе и России: общественный контекст и социальные неравенства. Социологический журнал. 20, 4 (дек. 2014), С. 19-43. DOI:https://doi.org/10.19181/socjour.2014.20.4.235.
Раздел
МАССОВЫЕ ОПРОСЫ, ЭКСПЕРИМЕНТЫ, МОНОГРАФИЧЕСКИЕ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ
Все права на статью принадлежат авторам. Авторы передают права на использование статьи, в том числе на использование статьи в открытом доступе, издателю журнала на условиях неисключительной лицензии (Авторское соглашение (публичная оферта))
Принятием условий этого договора автором считается передача им материалов в редакцию через официальный сайт журнала ("Отправить рукопись") или через электронную почту редакции.
